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# New Infection Chain and ConfuserEx-Based Obfuscation for DarkCloud Stealer

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* ![Profile Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-profile-grey.svg)  
  By:
  
  * [Pranay Kumar Chhaparwal](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/author/pranay-kumar-chhaparwal/)
  * [Benjamin Chang](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/author/benjamin-chang/)
  * [Lee Wei Yeong](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/author/lee-wei-yeong/)

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  Published:August 7, 2025

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  * [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/malware/)
  * [Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/)

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  * [Anti-analysis](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/anti-analysis/)
  * [Infostealer](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/infostealer/)
  * [Obfuscation](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/obfuscation/)

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## Executive Summary

Unit 42 researchers recently observed a shift in the delivery method in the distribution of DarkCloud Stealer and the obfuscation techniques used to complicate analysis. First seen in early April 2025, these new methods and techniques include an additional infection chain for DarkCloud Stealer. This chain involves obfuscation by ConfuserEx and a final payload written in Visual Basic 6 (VB6).

We previously identified a series of attacks linked to the distribution of DarkCloud Stealer. It also leveraged AutoIt to bypass detection systems. We documented these details in [DarkCloud Stealer: Comprehensive Analysis of a New Attack Chain That Employs AutoIt](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/darkcloud-stealer-and-obfuscated-autoit-scripting/).

Palo Alto Networks customers are better protected through the following products and services:

* [Advanced WildFire](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/wildfire)
* [Advanced URL Filtering](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/advanced-url-filtering/administration)
* [Advanced DNS Security](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/dns-security)
* [Cortex XDR](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/p/XDR) and [XSIAM](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/p/XSIAM)
* [Cortex Cloud](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud)

If you think you might have been compromised or have an urgent matter, contact the [Unit 42 Incident Response team](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/contact-unit42.html).

| **Related Unit 42 Topics** | [**Infostealers**](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/infostealer/), **[Anti-analysis](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/anti-analysis/)** |
|----------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|

## Delivery Mechanism and Updated Infection Chain

We have observed three slightly different attack chains delivering the same final DarkCloud Stealer payload in recent attacks.

Each attack chain starts with a phishing email that contains either a tarball (TAR), Roshal (RAR) or a 7-Zip (7Z) archive. Both the TAR or RAR versions contain a JavaScript (JS) file, while the 7Z version contains a Windows Script File (WSF). The threat actor is at a point in development that, for all infection chain paths, almost every stage is obfuscated or protected.

Figure 1 shows an overview of the different infection chains of these recent DarkCloud Stealer campaigns.
![Flowchart showing a cybersecurity attack sequence starting from a phishing email with various file types (RAR, JS, TAR), leading to an Open Directory Server, engaging a PowerShell script (PS1), and culminating in the execution of a malware payload process. The process begins with an EXE file, labeled as the initial payload ConfuserEx, which launches the official .Net RegAsm tool, and results in a second injected EXE known as the final payload VB6.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-464937-150463-1.png) Figure 1. Infection chain of recent DarkCloud attacks.

In the chains initiated by a JS script, executing the script downloads and executes a PowerShell (PS1) file from an open directory server. The PS1 file then drops an executable (EXE) file that is the [ConfuserEx](https://yck1509.github.io/ConfuserEx/)-protected version of the final DarkCloud payload. Looking at the JS file here in Figure 2, the script is obfuscated by the tool [javascript-obfuscator](https://github.com/javascript-obfuscator/javascript-obfuscator).
![A screenshot of a computer monitor displaying multiple lines of colorful computer code on a black background.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-468495-150463-2.png) Figure 2. JS downloader in its original obfuscated form.

Figure 3 below shows the deobfuscated version of the same script. In summary, the script:

* Uses ActiveXObject('MSXML2.XMLHTTP') object to obtain the next stage PS1 script at hxxp\[:\]//176.65.142\[.\]190/BLACKYY/newbag.ps1
* Uses ActiveXObject('Scripting.FileSystemObject') object to drop the PS1 file as a random 8-character lowercase name in the C:\\Temp folder.
* Uses ActiveXObject('WScript.Shell') object to run a PowerShell command to execute the PS1 file.

![A screenshot displaying many lines of code that involve JavaScript functions related to network activities and error handling, written in a text editor with syntax highlighting.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-471616-150463-3.png) Figure 3. Unobfuscated JS downloader.

Figure 4 illustrates an open directory server hosting many malicious PS1 files. In this case, the kay.ps1 is the next stage PS1 sample that the JS script downloaded and executed.
![Screenshot of a web directory listing. It is the index for blackyy. It is on Apache/2.4.58 (Win64) OpenSSL/1.1.1j PHP/8.0.3 Server at 176 dot 65 dot 142 dot 190 Port 80, displaying various files with details on the last modified dates and file sizes.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-475082-150463-4.png) Figure 4. Open directory server hosting PS1 files.

The infection chain initiated by a 7Z archive drops a WSF file. The WSF file mainly consists of a single \<job\> tag, which contains a \<script language="JScript"\> tag. The JScript code is again heavily obfuscated, but in a different way than the JS file shown in Figure 2. It also uses ActiveXObject objects to download and execute a PS1 file from the same open directory server. However, the PS1 script associated with this WSF downloader is different.

Next, we will focus on the JS-based infection chain that runs the kay.ps1 PowerShell script. This PS1 also has two layers of encryption scheme. Figure 5 shows partial code snippets from the first layer. The snippet uses [Invoke-Expression](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/module/microsoft.powershell.utility/invoke-expression?view=powershell-7.5) (a PowerShell command that executes a string as if it were a command) to invoke another PowerShell expression that is both Base64-encoded and [AES](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard)-encrypted.
![Screenshot of computer code involving Base64 encoding and decryption processes. The PowerShell script first layer.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-478551-150463-5.png) Figure 5. First layer of the PS1 script.

Figure 6 shows a code snippet from the invoked PS1 expression, revealing its core functionality. The code reveals that an EXE file is written to the %tmp% folder with a randomly generated 8-character upper- or lower-case filename. The script then executes the dropped EXE file using the Start-Process command.
![Screenshot of white code on a black background. The PowerShell script second layer.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-481333-150463-6.png) Figure 6. Second layer of the PS1 script.

## DarkCloud Technical Analysis: Expanded View

In the following section, we delve deeper into the analysis of the 32-bit .NET malware sample. This malware sample contains the final DarkCloud executable written in VB6 and wrapped in a layer of ConfuserEx obfuscation.

### Stage One: Initial ConfuserEx Obfuscation

ConfuserEx 2 is an open-source protector for .NET applications. Files protected with ConfuserEx are [watermarked](https://github.com/yck1509/ConfuserEx/blob/master/Confuser.Core/ConfuserEngine.cs#L303) with a ConfusedByAttribute attribute. ConfuserEx comes with many features and protections such as:

* [Anti-tampering](https://blog.threat.zone/deobfuscation-technical-analysis-of-confuserex-2) (method encryption): This protects the application from unauthorized modification. This is accomplished by *only* decrypting the code of method bodies at runtime. This decryption is performed in the module constructor (\<Module\>.cctor), which executes before reaching the main entry point.
* Symbol renaming: This changes class, method and variable names to random, meaningless, non-American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) printable identifiers.
* Control flow obfuscation: This alters the code structure with [opaque predicates](https://unprotect.it/technique/opaque-predicate) (cf. [control flow flattening](https://jscrambler.com/blog/jscrambler-101-control-flow-flattening)).
* Method reference hiding: This is also known as proxy call method obfuscation (this will be later described in more detail).
* Constant encoding: This encodes constants (e.g., strings using fixed reversible transformations.

The malware author applied these protections to the analyzed malware sample.

First, we can adapt the [AntiTamperKiller](https://www.cnblogs.com/wwh1004/p/17620443.html) code to defeat anti-tampering protection. This transformed the sample's .NET code, as Figure 7 shows.
![Screenshot of a computer screen displaying code in an IDE with error messages, specifically a DecompilerException, indicating non-generic decompiling issues. The code includes hex addresses and assembly language elements.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-484091-150463-7.png) Figure 7. The original sample depicting anti-tampering protection applied.

The method body code consists of bogus invalid .NET instructions into the deobfuscated code seen in Figure 8, where the real method body code is now visible. In particular, we extracted the specific parameters of the anti-tampering protection:

* Key 1: 0xc225d58c
* Key 2: 0xa2e32024
* Key 3: 0xdcc95ec9
* Key 4: 0x00000000
* Name hash: 0xe0cbeae4
* Internal key: 0x3dbb2819

![A screenshot of a computer screen displaying code in a software development environment. The code includes loops and conditional statements.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-487685-150463-8.png) Figure 8. Sample with anti-tampering protection removed.

Next, we still have more cleanup work to do on the partially deobfuscated sample. We then applied [de4dot-cex](https://github.com/ViRb3/de4dot-cex) (a fork of [de4dot](https://github.com/de4dot/de4dot), a generic .NET deobfuscator and unpacker, which includes support for ConfuserEx deobfuscation) to the sample, using the -p crx command-line switch. This transforms the .NET sample's code seen in Figure 8 into the code shown in Figure 9, by renaming the obfuscated symbols and reverting the control flow flattening.
![Image of a snippet of computer code showing functions and variable assignments within a Main method.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-490362-150463-9.png) Figure 9. Partially deobfuscated sample, after applying [de4dot-cex](https://github.com/ViRb3/de4dot-cex).

Thereafter, proxy call methods can be fixed using the [proxy call remover](https://github.com/Kaidoz/ProxyCall-Remover) tool. Proxy call method obfuscation is a technique that replaces direct method calls with calls to intermediate (i.e., proxy) methods. These proxy methods often do almost nothing besides forwarding the original call. However, they make control flow more difficult for the analyst to follow, thus hindering the code decompilation process. This reduces code readability and increases the effort required to fully understand the entire program logic.

Removing these proxy call methods resulted in the simplified code seen in Figure 10. The Class8.smethod\_10 method is revealed as the standard Convert.FromBase64String method.
![A screenshot of programming code displayed on a digital screen, featuring functions and methods related to data conversion and string manipulation.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-493829-150463-10.png) Figure 10. Deobfuscated sample with proxy calls removed.

Eventually, the final DarkCloud VB6 payload (which is in [Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_DES) encrypted form shown in Figure 11) is decrypted and executed.
![Screenshot of a computer code in a development environment, featuring several lines that include methods for converting Base64 strings.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-497302-150463-11.png) Figure 11. Final VB6 payload in 3DES-encrypted form.

The Base64-encoded key, initialization vector (IV) and ciphertext are stored as strings within the \<Module\>.byte\_0 variable in Length-Value format, as shown in Figure 12.
![Hexadecimal values displayed in pink and green on a black background, with some ASCII characters visible on the right side.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-500555-150463-12.png) Figure 12. \<Module\>.byte\_0 variable in Length-Value format.

The standard [Type-Length-Value (TLV) format](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-length-value) (TLV) format typically includes a type identifier, but in this case, it's omitted because all values are strings. For instance, the cryptographic key iA9B1uKFddQdqiLSSuzvD2GhL1o2Jv+v (also shown in Figure 11) is stored as a 32-byte string. The length is specified at offset 60 in little-endian format, with the string value beginning at offset 64.

The \<Module\>.byte\_0 variable value is initialized in the module constructor (\<Module\>.cctor), through a series of exclusive OR (XOR) and [bitwise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation) (arithmetic bit shift) operations on a hard-coded 100,560-element unsigned integer array. After initialization, other [generic](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/programming-guide/generics/generic-methods) .NET methods, each accepting a single integer id as parameter, use this array to index the initialized \<Module\>.byte\_0 variable and return a string. Figure 13 shows one such method, \<Module\>.smethod\_6.
![A screenshot of many lines of code showing with several lines including conditionals, loops, and function definitions.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-503254-150463-13.png) Figure 13. Example generic .NET method providing a string lookup by id on the \<Module\>.byte\_0 variable.

### Stage Two: Final VB6 Payload

[RunPE](https://www.esentire.com/blog/pure-crypter-malware-analysis-99-problems-but-detection-aint-one), or [process](https://unprotect.it/technique/process-hollowing-runpe) [hollowing](https://hackingarticles.in/process-hollowing-mitret1055-012), is a process injection technique. Process hollowing works by first creating a fresh instance of a (usually legitimate) process in a suspended state. The process memory is then overwritten with code from another (usually malicious) executable. Subsequently, the process thread resumes at the entry point of the overwritten code, so that the malicious code now runs in the context of the benign process.

The ConfuserEx protected process uses process hollowing to inject the final VB6 payload. After decryption, the final VB6 payload named holographies.exe, is injected into a new native Portable Executable (PE) process spawned by the initial ConfuserEx process. The process used for injection is RegAsm.exe, a [legitimate](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/framework/tools/regasm-exe-assembly-registration-tool) utility that comes with the default installed .NET Framework SDK on Windows.

The presence of the string DarkCloud within the final VB6 payload (shown in Figure 14) confirms its affiliation with the DarkCloud malware family.
![Hexadecimal and ASCII data representations on a computer screen, including highlighted sections spelling out DARK CLOUD.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/word-image-506732-150463-14.png) Figure 14. DARKCLOUD Unicode string in little-endian format (UTF16-LE) embedded within the final VB6 payload file.

Additionally, critical strings within the payload are encrypted using the [Rivest Cipher 4 (RC4)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC4) stream cipher algorithm, with each ciphertext typically using a unique key. For instance, the ciphertext 58364B6DB1C7D797DFA59186B4 paired with the key sMgSInEGpSAgkfcMSUPDDFCVSTyhowuHorsctkyTMYZh decrypts to the string WScript.Shell. These sensitive strings can be broadly categorized as:

* Regular expressions
* Credit card names
* Registry paths
* Directory and file paths (including file extensions)
* Telegram API credentials (used for C2 purposes)
* Other miscellaneous strings

## Conclusion

DarkCloud Stealer is typical of an evolution in cyberthreats, leveraging obfuscation techniques and intricate payload structures to evade traditional detection mechanisms. The developers of the malware complicated its analysis by adopting ConfuserEx and a VB6 payload in its infection chain.

The shift in delivery methods observed in April 2025 indicates an evolving evasion strategy. This highlights the need for security professionals to adopt proactive, behavior-based approaches to threat detection and mitigation.

### Palo Alto Networks Protection and Mitigation

Palo Alto Networks customers are better protected from the threats discussed above through the following products:

* The[Advanced WildFire](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/wildfire) machine-learning models and analysis techniques have been reviewed and updated in light of the indicators shared in this research.
* [Advanced URL Filtering](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/advanced-url-filtering/administration) and [Advanced DNS Security](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/dns-security) identify known domains and URLs associated with this activity as malicious.
* [Cortex XDR](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/p/XDR) and [XSIAM](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/p/XSIAM) are designed to prevent the execution of known malicious malware, and also prevent the execution of unknown malware using Behavioral Threat Protection and machine learning based on the Local Analysis module.
* [Cortex Cloud](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud) customers are better protected from DarkCloud Stealer through the proper placement of Cortex Cloud [XDR endpoint agent](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/r/Cortex-CLOUD/Cortex-Cloud-Runtime-Security-Documentation/Endpoint-protection) and [serverless agents](https://docs-cortex.paloaltonetworks.com/r/Cortex-XSIAM/Cortex-XSIAM-Premium-Documentation/Use-cases) within a cloud environment. Designed to protect a cloud's posture and runtime operations against these threats, Cortex Cloud helps detect and prevent the malicious operations or configuration alterations or exploitations discussed within this article.

If you think you may have been compromised or have an urgent matter, get in touch with the [Unit 42 Incident Response team](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/contact-unit42.html) or call:

* North America: Toll Free: +1 (866) 486-4842 (866.4.UNIT42)
* UK: +44.20.3743.3660
* Europe and Middle East: +31.20.299.3130
* Asia: +65.6983.8730
* Japan: +81.50.1790.0200
* Australia: +61.2.4062.7950
* India: 00080005045107

Palo Alto Networks has shared these findings with our fellow Cyber Threat Alliance (CTA) members. CTA members use this intelligence to rapidly deploy protections to their customers and to systematically disrupt malicious cyber actors. Learn more about the [Cyber Threat Alliance](https://www.cyberthreatalliance.org).

## Indicators of Compromise

|----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **File Type**                    | **SHA256 Hash**                                                  |
| RAR archive                      | bd8c0b0503741c17d75ce560a10eeeaa0cdd21dff323d9f1644c62b7b8eb43d9 |
| TAR archive                      | 9588c9a754574246d179c9fb05fea9dc5762c855a3a2a4823b402217f82a71c1 |
| JS file                          | 6b8a4c3d4a4a0a3aea50037744c5fec26a38d3fb6a596d006457f1c51bbc75c7 |
| PS1 file                         | F6d9198bd707c49454b83687af926ccb8d13c7e43514f59eac1507467e8fb140 |
| WSF file                         | 72d3de12a0aa8ce87a64a70807f0769c332816f27dcf8286b91e6819e2197aa8 |
| 7Z archive                       | fa598e761201582d41a73d174eb5edad10f709238d99e0bf698da1601c71d1ca |
| 7Z archive                       | 2bd43f839d5f77f22f619395461c1eeaee9234009b475231212b88bd510d00b7 |
| Initial ConfuserEx .NET EXE file | 24552408d849799b2cac983d499b1f32c88c10f88319339d0eec00fb01bb19b4 |
| Final DarkCloud VB6 EXE file     | ce3a3e46ca65d779d687c7e58fb4a2eb784e5b1b4cebe33dbb2bf37cccb6f194 |

* Malware distribution URL hxxp\[:\]//176.65.142\[.\]190
* C2 URL hxxps\[:\]//api.telegram\[.\]org/bot7684022823:AAFw0jHSu-b4qs6N7yC88nUOR8ovPrCdIrs/sendMessage?chat\_id=6542615755

## Additional Resources

* [DarkCloud Stealer: Comprehensive Analysis of a New Attack Chain That Employs AutoIt](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/darkcloud-stealer-and-obfuscated-autoit-scripting) -- Unit 42, Palo Alto Networks
* [.NET Hooking - Harmonizing Managed Territory](https://research.checkpoint.com/2024/net-hooking-harmonizing-managed-territory) -- Jiří Vinopal, Check Point Research

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### Tags

* [Anti-analysis](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/anti-analysis/ "anti-analysis")
* [Infostealer](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/infostealer/ "Infostealer")
* [Obfuscation](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/obfuscation/ "obfuscation")  
  [Threat Research Center](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com "Threat Research") [Next: Muddled Libra: Why Are We So Obsessed With You?](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/why-the-focus-on-muddled-libra/ "Muddled Libra: Why Are We So Obsessed With You?")

### Table of Contents

* 

### Related Articles

* [Token Jacking: Cybercriminals Could Be Stealing Your AI Resources](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-token-jacking/ "article - table of contents")
* [The Xcode Assassin Returns: A Deep Dive Into the Latest XCSSET Version](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/xcsset-v40-malware-analysis/ "article - table of contents")
* [Russian Global Webmail Espionage](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/russian-webmail-espionage/ "article - table of contents")

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