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Maurya](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/author/anmol-maurya/) * [Siddharth Sharma](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/author/siddharth-sharma/) * ![Published Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-calendar-grey.svg) Published:February 29, 2024 * ![Tags Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-category.svg) Categories: * [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/malware/) * [Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) * ![Tags Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-tags-grey.svg) Tags: * [Linux](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/linux/) * [Linux Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/linux-malware/) * [Remote Access Trojan](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/remote-access-trojan/) * [Sandbox](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/sandbox/) * [![Download 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Executive Summary We recently found a new Linux variant of Bifrost (aka Bifrose), showcasing an innovative technique to evade detection. It uses a deceptive domain, download.vmfare\[.\]com, which mimics the legitimate VMware domain. This latest version of Bifrost aims to bypass security measures and compromise targeted systems. First identified in 2004, Bifrost is a remote access Trojan (RAT) that allows an attacker to gather sensitive information, like hostname and IP address. In this article, along with exploring Bifrost, we'll also showcase a notable spike in Bifrost's Linux variants during the past few months. This spike raises concerns among security experts and organizations. Palo Alto Networks customers are better protected from the threats discussed in this article through our [Next-Generation Firewall](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/next-generation-firewall) with [Cloud-Delivered Security Services](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/security-subscriptions), including [Advanced WildFire.](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-wildfire) [Advanced URL Filtering](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-url-filtering) and [DNS Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/products/threat-detection-and-prevention/dns-security). [Cortex XDR](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xdr) can help detect and prevent Bifrost and related malicious behavior. If you think you might have been compromised or have an urgent matter, contact the [Unit 42 Incident Response team](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/contact-unit42.html). | **Related Unit 42 Topics** | [**Remote Access Trojans**](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/remote-access-trojan/), **[Linux](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/linux/)** | |----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| ## Introduction Attackers typically distribute Bifrost through email attachments or malicious websites. Once installed on a victim's computer, Bifrost allows the attacker to gather sensitive information, like the victim's hostname and IP address. The latest version of Bifrost reaches out to a command and control (C2) domain with a deceptive name, download.vmfare\[.\]com, which appears similar to a legitimate VMware domain. This is a practice known as [typosquatting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typosquatting). By leveraging this deceptive domain, the threat actors behind Bifrost aim to bypass security measures, evade detection, and ultimately compromise targeted systems. As of late February, the deceptive domain has so far been undetected on [VirusTotal](https://www.virustotal.com/gui/domain/download.vmfare.com) as shown below in Figure 1. ![Image 1 is a screenshot of the VirusTotal score for a deceptive domain. The information includes the community score, which is zero, detection, details, relations, and community. The creation date at the time of the show was 10 months ago, and the last analysis date at the time of the screenshot was three months ago.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-876254-132830-1.png) Figure 1. VirusTotal score for download.vmfare\[.\]com. ## Malware Overview: Bifrost We found the latest sample of Bifrost (SHA256 hash: 8e85cb6f2215999dc6823ea3982ff4376c2cbea53286e95ed00250a4a2fe4729) hosted on a server at 45.91.82\[.\]127. The sample binary is compiled for x86 and seems stripped. A stripped binary is one from which debugging information and symbol tables have been removed. Attackers usually use this technique to hinder analysis. Figure 2 shows the sample's file type using the file command from a terminal window in a Linux environment. ![Image 2 as a screenshot of the Linux terminal. The code and the terminal is a stripped binary. This is stated in the fourth line.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-879466-132830-2.png) Figure 2. Stripped binary. To better understand how this latest version of Bifrost functions, we viewed the recent sample in a disassembler. The malware first creates a socket via a setSocket function to establish communications, then it collects the user data and sends it to the attacker's server. The disassembled code illustrating this is shown below in Figure 3. ![Image 3 is a screenshot of the code flow and a disassembler. Highlighted in red on the top left is SetSocket. Highlighted in red on the bottom right is DataCollection and SendDatatoC2.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-883203-132830-3.png) Figure 3. Code flow of the malware seen in a disassembler. A snippet of code for the setSocket function is shown below in Figure 4, where the code pushes three values onto the stack and later calls sys\_socket(0x8063A80): * push 2: This corresponds to the socket domain, which is AF\_INET (IPv4 Internet Protocols). * push 1: This corresponds to the socket type, which is SOCK\_STREAM (TCP). * push 6: This corresponds to the socket protocol, which is IPPROTO\_TCP (TCP). ![Image 4 is a screenshot of the disassembler view of code for stock creation in the sample. Some information is highlighted in yellow. The socket creation is highlighted in a red box.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-887338-132830-4.png) Figure 4. Disassembler view of code for socket creation in the Bifrost sample. After socket creation, the malware collects user data as shown below in Figure 5, to send it over to the attacker's server. ![Image 5 is a screenshot of the Bifrost code that collects the victim data. Highlighted in a red box is the hostname and reconnaissance. In a second red box at the bottom of the screenshot is the code that collects the PID.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-890661-132830-5.png) Figure 5. Disassembled code showing how Bifrost collects victim data. This recent sample uses RC4 encryption to encrypt collected victim data as shown below in Figure 6. Compared to previous Bifrost samples, we find small changes, like bitwise AND operations in the encryption process, depending on the particular instance being studied. ![Image 6 is a screenshot of disassembled Bifrost sample code. One line is highlighted in gray.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-894619-132830-6.png) Figure 6. Disassembled code from the most recent Bifrost sample, indicating potentially modified RC4 encryption. Subsequently, the malware tries to make contact with a Taiwan-based public DNS resolver with the IP address 168.95.1\[.\]1 shown below in Figure 7. ![Image 7 is two stacked screenshots. The top screen screenshot is the deep, bugger output. Highlighted in a red box is the public DNS resolver. In the bottom screenshot, which is the disassembled code, a Redbox highlights, the DNS server code.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-897630-132830-7.png) Figure 7. Debugger output and disassembled code revealing the malware contacting a public DNS resolver at 168.95.1\[.\]1. As evidenced by the logs in Figure 8, the malware initiates a DNS query to resolve the domain download.vmfare\[.\]com by employing the public DNS resolver at 168.95\[.\]1.1. This step is crucial in ensuring that the malware can successfully connect to its intended destination. ![Image 8 is a screenshot of many lines of code. A red box highlights the malware that initiates a DNS query.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-903714-132830-8.png) Figure 8. Malware initiating a DNS query to resolve the domain download.vmfare\[.\]com. The malware often adopts such deceptive domain names as C2 instead of IP addresses to evade detection and make it more difficult for researchers to trace the source of the malicious activity. ## Expanding Attack Surface Upon checking, we found that the malicious IP address at 45.91.82\[.\]127 hosts an ARM version of Bifrost as well. The presence of this version indicates that the attacker is trying to expand their attack surface. The ARM version functions the same as the x86 version we've analyzed in this article. By providing an ARM version of the malware, attackers can expand their grasp, compromising devices that may not be compatible with x86-based malware. As ARM-based devices become more common, cybercriminals will likely change their tactics to include ARM-based malware, making their attacks stronger and able to reach more targets. ## Capturing Bifrost Palo Alto Networks [Advanced WildFire](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-wildfire) detected a recent spike in Bifrost activity. For the last few months, WildFire detected more than 100 instances (hashes) of Bifrost samples, as illustrated below in Figure 9. ![Image 9 is a bar graph of by Frost sample detections from October 2023 through January 2024. There is a marked increase in November 2023.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/word-image-907064-132830-9.png) Figure 9. Advanced WildFire report of Bifrost sample detections from October through January 2024. ## Conclusion The Bifrost RAT remains a significant and evolving threat to individuals and organizations alike. With new variants that employ deceptive domain strategies like typosquatting, a recent spike in Bifrost activity highlights the dangerous nature of this malware. Tracking and counteracting malware like Bifrost is crucial to safeguarding sensitive data and preserving the integrity of computer systems. This also helps minimize the likelihood of unauthorized access and subsequent harm. Palo Alto Networks customers are better protected from the threats discussed in this article through our [Next-Generation Firewall](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/next-generation-firewall) with [Cloud-Delivered Security Services](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/security-subscriptions), including [Advanced WildFire](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-wildfire), [Advanced URL Filtering](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-url-filtering) and [DNS Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/products/threat-detection-and-prevention/dns-security). [Cortex XDR](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xdr) can help detect and prevent Bifrost and related malicious behavior. If you think you might have been compromised or have an urgent matter, contact the [Unit 42 Incident Response team](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/contact-unit42.html) or call: * North America Toll-Free: 866.486.4842 (866.4.UNIT42) * EMEA: +31.20.299.3130 * APAC: +65.6983.8730 * Japan: +81.50.1790.0200 Palo Alto Networks has shared our findings with our fellow Cyber Threat Alliance (CTA) members. CTA members use this intelligence to rapidly deploy protections to their customers and to systematically disrupt malicious cyber actors. Learn more about the [Cyber Threat Alliance](https://www.cyberthreatalliance.org/). ## Acknowledgments We would like to thank Bradley Duncan for his valuable input and suggestions that helped shape up this article. ## Indicators of Compromise ### Malware Samples |------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------| | **SHA256 Hash** | **Architecture** | | 8e85cb6f2215999dc6823ea3982ff4376c2cbea53286e95ed00250a4a2fe4729 | x86 | | 2aeb70f72e87a1957e3bc478e1982fe608429cad4580737abe58f6d78a626c05 | ARM | ### Domain and IP Addresses * download.vmfare\[.\]com * 45\.91.82\[.\]127 ## Additional Resources * [Report on APT Attacks by BlackTech \[PDF\]](https://jp.security.ntt/resources/EN-BlackTech_2021.pdf) --- NTT Security Holdings Corporation, Japan SOC *Updated March 21, 2024, at 9:05 a.m. PT to add DNS Security.* Back to top ### Tags * [Linux](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/linux/ "Linux") * [Linux Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/linux-malware/ "Linux Malware") * [Remote Access Trojan](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/remote-access-trojan/ "Remote Access Trojan") * [Sandbox](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/sandbox/ "Sandbox") [Threat Research Center](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com "Threat Research") [Next: Navigating the Cloud: Exploring Lateral Movement Techniques](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/cloud-lateral-movement-techniques/ "Navigating the Cloud: Exploring Lateral Movement Techniques") ### Table of Contents * ### Related Articles * [A Vault with a Heap-View: The Uncomfortable Space Between AgentCore Harness and Identity](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/securing-aws-agentcore-harness-credentials/ "article - table of contents") * [The Machine With Many Faces: Post-Exploitation Identity Misuse in SPIFFE/SPIRE](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/kubernetes-spiffe-spire-identity-spoofing/ "article - table of contents") * [Spring Ring: An Inside Look at Voice Phishing Campaigns in Microsoft Teams](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/spring-ring-voice-phishing-campaigns/ "article - table of contents") ## Related Malware Resources ![Pictorial representation of a magnifying glass illuminating a glowing orange circular digital circuit interface on a dark, high-tech background.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/04_Myth-Busting_Overview_1920x900-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Insights-icon-white.svg)Insights](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/insights/) September 16, 2026 [#### Atomic macOS (AMOS) Stealer Activity](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/atomic-macos-amos-stealer-activity/) * [MacOS](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/macos/ "macOS") * [Threat intelligence](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/threat-intelligence/ "threat intelligence") * [Unit 42](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/unit-42/ "Unit 42") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/atomic-macos-amos-stealer-activity/ "Atomic macOS (AMOS) Stealer Activity") ![Pictorial representation of post-exploitation identity misuse in SPIFFE/SPIRE. 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A digital image of a skull formed by blue binary code on a black background, with scattered ones and zeros and digital noise, symbolizes how stealthy prompt injection attacks can exploit AI logic to bypass security controls.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/01_Malware_Category_1920x900-5-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) August 31, 2026 [#### Spring Ring: An Inside Look at Voice Phishing Campaigns in Microsoft Teams](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/spring-ring-voice-phishing-campaigns/) * [Cloaked Ursa](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cloaked-ursa/ "Cloaked Ursa") * [Entra ID](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/entra-id/ "Entra ID") * [Microsoft Teams](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/microsoft-teams/ "Microsoft Teams") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/spring-ring-voice-phishing-campaigns/ "Spring Ring: An Inside Look at Voice Phishing Campaigns in Microsoft Teams") ![Pictorial representation of AI-enabled malware. A vibrant digital interface displaying various icons and graphs, resembling a futuristic network or data analysis dashboard. The scene is illuminated with glowing lights and patterns.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/AdobeStock_1270203474-2-1-786x368.png) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) August 25, 2026 [#### The State of AI-Enabled Malware August 2026: From Brand Abuse to Agentic Execution](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-enabled-malware-analysis/) * [Backdoor](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/backdoor/ "backdoor") * [Bitcoin](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/bitcoin/ "Bitcoin") * [DLL hijacking](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/dll-hijacking/ "DLL hijacking") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-enabled-malware-analysis/ "The State of AI-Enabled Malware August 2026: From Brand Abuse to Agentic Execution") ![Pictorial representation of identity abuse through trusted communication channels. Close-up view of a digital screen displaying a glitched and pixelated image of a skull-like shape.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/02_Malware_Category_1920x900-2-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) August 20, 2026 [#### Identity Abuse Through Trusted Communication Channels](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/communication-channel-identity-risks/) * [Authentication](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/authentication/ "authentication") * [Identity theft](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/identity-theft/ "identity theft") * [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/malware/ "malware") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/communication-channel-identity-risks/ "Identity Abuse Through Trusted Communication Channels") ![Pictorial representation of Kimwolf botnet malware family. Digital screen with a warning sign reading "Malware." The background features lines of computer code and graphics, creating a sense of cybersecurity threat.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/07_Malware_Category_1920x900-3-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) August 11, 2026 [#### Kimwolf v7: An Evolution of the Kimwolf Botnet](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/kimwolf-v7-botnet-malware/) * [Android APK](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/android-apk/ "Android APK") * [Ethereum](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/ethereum/ "Ethereum") * [HTTP](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/http/ "HTTP") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/kimwolf-v7-botnet-malware/ "Kimwolf v7: An Evolution of the Kimwolf Botnet") ![Pictorial representatiom pf Aeternum's blockchain C2. A close-up of a computer circuit board with a central microchip is depicted. Red digital data streams in the form of glowing binary numbers and arrows appear to flow in and out of the chip. The scene is illuminated with a futuristic blue and red glow.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/04_Malware_Category_1920x900-4-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) August 10, 2026 [#### The Permanent Threat: Analyzing Aeternum's Blockchain-Based C2 Operations and Communications](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/aeternum-blockchain-c2-analysis/) * [Aeternum](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/aeternum/ "Aeternum") * [Infection chain](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/infection-chain/ "infection chain") * [JSON](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/json/ "JSON") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/aeternum-blockchain-c2-analysis/ "The Permanent Threat: Analyzing Aeternum’s Blockchain-Based C2 Operations and Communications") ![Pictorial representation of ChainDrop, a self-propagating npm worm. An artistic depiction of a digital workspace featuring an open laptop with a red virus on the screen.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/03_Malware_Category_1920x900-7-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/top-threats.svg)High Profile Threats](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/top-cyberthreats/) August 6, 2026 [#### ChainDrop: Inside a Self-Propagating npm Worm](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/chaindrop-npm-worm-analysis/) * [Blockchain](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/blockchain/ "blockchain") * [ChainDrop](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/chaindrop/ "ChainDrop") * [Claude code](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/claude-code/ "Claude code") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/chaindrop-npm-worm-analysis/ "ChainDrop: Inside a Self-Propagating npm Worm") * ![Slider arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/slider-arrow-left.svg) * ![Slider arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/slider-arrow-left.svg) ![Close button](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/close-modal.svg) ![Enlarged Image]() ![Newsletter](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/unit42-footer-subscribe-desktop.png) ![UNIT 42 Small Logo](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/palo-alto-logo-small.svg) Get updates from Unit 42 ## Peace of mind comes from staying ahead of threats. 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