[![Logo](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/PANW_Parent.png)](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/) [![Unit42 Logo](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/unit42-logo-white.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/) Menu * [Tools](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tools/) * [ATOMs](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/atoms/) * [Security Consulting](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42) * [About Us](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/about-unit-42/) * [**Under Attack?**](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/contact-unit42.html) English * [English](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6/) * [Japanese](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ja/unit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6/) * [Threat Research Center](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com "Threat Research") * [Learning Hub](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/learning-hub/ "Learning Hub") * [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/malware/ "Malware") [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/malware/) # Using IDAPython to Make Your Life Easier: Part 6 ![Clock Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-clock.svg) 5 min read * ![Profile Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-profile-grey.svg) By: * ![Published Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-calendar-grey.svg) Published:June 9, 2016 * ![Tags Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-category.svg) Categories: * [Learning Hub](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/learning-hub/) * [Malware](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/malware/) * ![Tags Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-tags-grey.svg) Tags: * [Cmstar](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cmstar/) * [IDA Pro](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/ida-pro/) * [IDAPython](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/idapython/) * [![Download Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-download.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6/?pdf=download&lg=en&_wpnonce=ec70839b8b "Click here to download") * [![Print Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-print.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6/?pdf=print&lg=en&_wpnonce=ec70839b8b "Click here to print") Share![Down arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/down-arrow.svg) * ![Link Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-share-link.svg) * [![Link Email](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-sms.svg)](mailto:?subject=Using%20IDAPython%20to%20Make%20Your%20Life%20Easier:%20Part%206&body=Check%20out%20this%20article%20https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F "Share in email") * [![Facebook Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-fb-share.svg)](https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F "Share in Facebook") * [![LinkedIn Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-linkedin-share.svg)](https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share-offsite/?url=https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F&title=Using%20IDAPython%20to%20Make%20Your%20Life%20Easier:%20Part%206 "Share in LinkedIn") * [![Twitter Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-twitter-share.svg)](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F&text=Using%20IDAPython%20to%20Make%20Your%20Life%20Easier:%20Part%206 "Share in Twitter") * [![Reddit Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-reddit-share.svg)](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com//www.reddit.com/submit?url=https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F&ts=markdown "Share in Reddit") * [![Mastodon Icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-mastodon-share.svg)](https://mastodon.social/share?text=Using%20IDAPython%20to%20Make%20Your%20Life%20Easier:%20Part%206%20https%3A%2F%2Funit42.paloaltonetworks.com%2Funit42-using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-6%2F "Share in Mastodon") In [Part 5 of our IDAPython blog series](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/2016/01/using-idapython-to-make-your-life-easier-part-5/), we used IDAPython to extract embedded executables from malicious samples. For this sixth installment, I'd like to discuss using IDA in a very automated way. Specifically, let's address how we're going to load files into IDA without spawning a GUI, automatically run an IDAPython script, and extract the results. Using this technique, we'll be able to process many samples very quickly without needing to manually open each file in a new instance of IDA and run the IDAPython script. Many may be surprised to learn that IDA can be executed purely on the command-line without spawning a GUI. In order to do so, the user must run the IDA executable with the '-A' switch. This particular switch will instruct IDA to run in autonomous mode, ensuring that no windows or dialog boxes are presented to the user. The following command-line examples demonstrate this technique being used in both OSX and Microsoft Windows . In these examples, the '-c' switch generates a new IDB file, even in the event one already exists. Additionally, the '-S' switch specifies the IDAPython script that will be run upon execution. We'll be using these switches later on in the post. "/Applications/IDA Pro 6.9/idaq.app/Contents/MacOS/idaq" -c -A -S/tmp/script.py file.exe "C:\\Program Files\\IDA 6.9\\idaq.exe" -c -A -SC:\\script.py C:\\file.exe |-------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 2 3 | "/Applications/IDA Pro 6.9/idaq.app/Contents/MacOS/idaq" -c -A -S/tmp/script.py file.exe "C:\\Program Files\\IDA 6.9\\idaq.exe" -c -A -SC:\\script.py C:\\file.exe | ### The Scenario For this example, I'm going to use the [Cmstar malware family](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/2015/05/cmstar-downloader-lurid-and-enfals-new-cousin/), [previously discussed](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/2016/03/digital-quartermaster-scenario-demonstrated-in-attacks-against-the-mongolian-government/) by Unit 42. For those unfamiliar with this malware family, it is a downloader that will transfer a file hosted at a specific URL over HTTP(S) and execute it on the victim's system. The URL in question can be de-obfuscated using the following routine. def decode(data): out = "" c = 0 for d in data: out += chr(ord(d) - c - 10) c += 1 return out |---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | def decode(data): out = "" c = 0 for d in data: out += chr(ord(d) - c - 10) c += 1 return out | Knowing this, our next task is to identify where this data resides within a Cmstar sample. Correlating across a few samples, we conclude that two encrypted strings are being stored into a variable using calls to memcpy. One of the strings contains the domain or IP address that the malware will connect to, while the other contains the URI. We also notice that the same sequence of instructions are executed when this memcpy instruction takes place: *mov esi, \[offset\]* *pop ecx* *lea edi, \[variable\]* *rep movsd* [![IDA Python 1](http://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Python-1-500x426.png)](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Python-1.png) *Figure 1 Function containing encoded strings in Cmstar* Armed with this information, we can attempt to identify this sequence of instructions using IDAPython. To do so, we'll iterate through every function IDA identifies, and proceed to ignore any functions marked as a jump function or belonging to a known library. The remaining functions will then be iterated through using a sliding window where we'll inspect four instructions at a time, seeking the markers previously identified to determine if there are any matches: import idc, idautils for func in idautils.Functions(): flags = idc.GetFunctionFlags(func) # Ignore THUNK (jump function) or library functons if flags \& FUNC\_LIB or flags \& FUNC\_THUNK: continue dism\_addr = list(idautils.FuncItems(func)) for c in range(len(dism\_addr)): try: # Look at four instructions at a time v1 = dism\_addr\[c\] v2 = dism\_addr\[c+1\] v3 = dism\_addr\[c+2\] v4 = dism\_addr\[c+3\] # Look for known markers indicating we're seeing the encoded strings # being copied to a variable. if idc.GetMnem(v1) == 'mov' and idc.GetOpnd(v1, 0) == 'esi': if idc.GetMnem(v2) == 'pop' and idc.GetOpnd(v2, 0) == 'ecx': if idc.GetMnem(v3) == 'lea' and idc.GetOpnd(v3, 0) == 'edi': if idc.GetDisasm(v4) == 'rep movsd': print "\[\*\] Found instruction starting at 0x{address:x}".format(address=v1) except IndexError: # Sliding window went past the end of the function None |-------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 | import idc, idautils for func in idautils.Functions(): flags = idc.GetFunctionFlags(func) # Ignore THUNK (jump function) or library functons if flags \& FUNC\_LIB or flags \& FUNC\_THUNK: continue dism\_addr = list(idautils.FuncItems(func)) for c in range(len(dism\_addr)): try: # Look at four instructions at a time v1 = dism\_addr\[c\] v2 = dism\_addr\[c+1\] v3 = dism\_addr\[c+2\] v4 = dism\_addr\[c+3\] # Look for known markers indicating we're seeing the encoded strings # being copied to a variable. if idc.GetMnem(v1) == 'mov' and idc.GetOpnd(v1, 0) == 'esi': if idc.GetMnem(v2) == 'pop' and idc.GetOpnd(v2, 0) == 'ecx': if idc.GetMnem(v3) == 'lea' and idc.GetOpnd(v3, 0) == 'edi': if idc.GetDisasm(v4) == 'rep movsd': print "\[\*\] Found instruction starting at 0x{address:x}".format(address=v1) except IndexError: # Sliding window went past the end of the function None | In the above example, I'm simply printing out a debug string if I find any matches. Running this code against the sample with an MD5 hash of 4BEFA0F5B3F981E498ACD676EB352D45 in IDA, we get the following output. As we can see below, we've successfully identified the addresses of both obfuscated strings. [![IDA Phython 2](http://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Phython-2-500x348.png)](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Phython-2.png) *Figure 2 Running script against Cmstar sample* At this point, we can take the offsets we've identified and extract the strings to which they point. These strings can then be decoded using the previously defined decode() function. addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) data = "" while Byte(addr) != 0x0: data += chr(Byte(addr)) addr += 1 decoded = decode(data) addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) |---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) data = "" while Byte(addr) != 0x0: data += chr(Byte(addr)) addr += 1 decoded = decode(data) addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) | Putting this all together, we come up with the following script: import idautils, idc, idaapi def decode(data): out = "" c = 0 for d in data: out += chr(ord(d) - c - 10) c += 1 return out # Wait for auto-analysis to finish before running script idaapi.autoWait() url = "" for func in idautils.Functions(): flags = idc.GetFunctionFlags(func) # Ignore THUNK (jump function) or library functons if flags \& FUNC\_LIB or flags \& FUNC\_THUNK: continue dism\_addr = list(idautils.FuncItems(func)) for c in range(len(dism\_addr)): try: # Look at four instructions at a time v1 = dism\_addr\[c\] v2 = dism\_addr\[c+1\] v3 = dism\_addr\[c+2\] v4 = dism\_addr\[c+3\] # Look for known markers indicating we're seeing the encoded strings # being copied to a variable. if idc.GetMnem(v1) == 'mov' and idc.GetOpnd(v1, 0) == 'esi': if idc.GetMnem(v2) == 'pop' and idc.GetOpnd(v2, 0) == 'ecx': if idc.GetMnem(v3) == 'lea' and idc.GetOpnd(v3, 0) == 'edi': if idc.GetDisasm(v4) == 'rep movsd': addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) data = "" while Byte(addr) != 0x0: data += chr(Byte(addr)) addr += 1 decoded = decode(data) url += decoded except IndexError: # Sliding window went past the end of the function None current\_file = idaapi.get\_root\_filename() f = open("/tmp/output.txt", 'ab') if url != "": f.write("\[+\] {0} : {1}\\n".format(current\_file, ''.join(url))) f.close() idc.Exit(0) |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 | import idautils, idc, idaapi def decode(data): out = "" c = 0 for d in data: out += chr(ord(d) - c - 10) c += 1 return out # Wait for auto-analysis to finish before running script idaapi.autoWait() url = "" for func in idautils.Functions(): flags = idc.GetFunctionFlags(func) # Ignore THUNK (jump function) or library functons if flags \& FUNC\_LIB or flags \& FUNC\_THUNK: continue dism\_addr = list(idautils.FuncItems(func)) for c in range(len(dism\_addr)): try: # Look at four instructions at a time v1 = dism\_addr\[c\] v2 = dism\_addr\[c+1\] v3 = dism\_addr\[c+2\] v4 = dism\_addr\[c+3\] # Look for known markers indicating we're seeing the encoded strings # being copied to a variable. if idc.GetMnem(v1) == 'mov' and idc.GetOpnd(v1, 0) == 'esi': if idc.GetMnem(v2) == 'pop' and idc.GetOpnd(v2, 0) == 'ecx': if idc.GetMnem(v3) == 'lea' and idc.GetOpnd(v3, 0) == 'edi': if idc.GetDisasm(v4) == 'rep movsd': addr = idc.GetOperandValue(v1, 1) data = "" while Byte(addr) != 0x0: data += chr(Byte(addr)) addr += 1 decoded = decode(data) url += decoded except IndexError: # Sliding window went past the end of the function None current\_file = idaapi.get\_root\_filename() f = open("/tmp/output.txt", 'ab') if url != "": f.write("\[+\] {0} : {1}\\n".format(current\_file, ''.join(url))) f.close() idc.Exit(0) | At this stage, we can use the automation technique of running IDA in non-GUI mode and use the above script. This will allow us to run this script against a number of samples without the need for user interaction. We'll run the script on our OSX machine as follows: *for x in `ls`; do /Applications/IDA\\ Pro\\ 6.9/idaq.app/Contents/MacOS/idaq -c -A -S/tmp/script.py $x; done* After a few minutes, we're treated to the following within /tmp/output.txt, which is where we instructed our script to store results. [![IDA Phython 3](http://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Phython-3-500x82.png)](https://blog.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IDA-Phython-3.png) *Figure 3 Output of /tmp/output.txt* ### Conclusion By leveraging both the power of IDAPython, along with IDA's command-line switches, we've successfully automated the extraction of the download location of a number of Cmstar samples. This technique can easily be applied to a larger number of samples, allowing us to execute IDAPython actions without needing to manually open each file in IDA. For those readers who were not aware of this IDA capability, I implore you to investigate it, as it can not only save you time, but also make things much easier when working with a large number of files. Back to top ### Tags * [Cmstar](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cmstar/ "cmstar") * [IDA Pro](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/ida-pro/ "IDA Pro") * [IDAPython](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/idapython/ "IDAPython") [Threat Research Center](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com "Threat Research") [Next: Understanding Angler Exploit Kit - Part 2: Examining Angler EK](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42-understanding-angler-exploit-kit-part-2-examining-angler-ek/ "Understanding Angler Exploit Kit - Part 2: Examining Angler EK") ### Related Articles * [How We Added WebAuthn to a Browser-Based RDP Client](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/webauthn-added-to-browser-based-rdp/ "article - table of contents") * [A Mega Malware Analysis Tutorial Featuring Donut-Generated Shellcode](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/donut-malware-analysis-tutorial/ "article - table of contents") * [Threat Actors Target Government of Belarus Using CMSTAR Trojan](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42-threat-actors-target-government-belarus-using-cmstar-trojan/ "article - table of contents") ## Related Malware Resources ![Pictorial representation of TLS Certificate compromise. A person typing on a laptop with digital graphics of binary code and light beams emanating from the screen, representing data transfer or cyber activity.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/10/07_Security-Technology_Category_1920x900-1-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/top-threats.svg)High Profile Threats](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/top-cyberthreats/) October 22, 2026 [#### EMudhra Intermediate CA Certificates Compromised](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/emudhra-certificate-compromise/) * [Certificates](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/certificates/ "certificates") * [Compromise](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/compromise/ "Compromise") * [Cryptographic](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cryptographic/ "cryptographic") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/emudhra-certificate-compromise/ "EMudhra Intermediate CA Certificates Compromised") ![](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/10/AdobeStock_1246251272-2-1-786x369.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) October 21, 2026 [#### "Next Exploit Opportunities": How a Threat Actor Used AI to Help Plan and Execute Multiple Types of Cybercrime Activities](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-assisted-cybercrime-analysis/) * [API](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/api/ "API") * [Data exfiltration](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/data-exfiltration/ "data exfiltration") * [DeepSeek](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/deepseek/ "DeepSeek") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-assisted-cybercrime-analysis/ "“Next Exploit Opportunities”: How a Threat Actor Used AI to Help Plan and Execute Multiple Types of Cybercrime Activities") ![Pictorial representation of AI-powered campaign targeting government infrastructure. A glowing, blue, brain-shaped structure floats above a central microchip on a circuit board. The scene is futuristic, with neon lights illuminating the interconnected pathways and components.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/10/AdobeStock_637057734-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) October 15, 2026 [#### AI-Powered Espionage Campaign Targets Government Linux Infrastructure](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-campaign-targets-linux-infrastructure/) * [Exfiltration](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/exfiltration/ "exfiltration") * [LLM](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/llm/ "LLM") * [Network security](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/network-security/ "network security") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-campaign-targets-linux-infrastructure/ "AI-Powered Espionage Campaign Targets Government Linux Infrastructure") ![Pictorial representation of PEERSTITCH, a FortiGate implant. A digital illustration depicting a circuit board with a prominent red warning triangle and exclamation mark in the center. The background is filled with various computer circuitry patterns.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/10/09_Vulnerabilities_1920x900-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) October 14, 2026 [#### Unit 42 Uncovers PEERSTITCH, a Stealthy FortiGate Implant](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/fortimanager-cve-2024-47575-peerstitch-malware/) * [Apache](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/apache/ "Apache") * [CL-STA-0954](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cl-sta-0954/ "CL-STA-0954") * [Logging](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/logging/ "logging") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/fortimanager-cve-2024-47575-peerstitch-malware/ "Unit 42 Uncovers PEERSTITCH, a Stealthy FortiGate Implant") ![Pictorial representation of operation blinder tunnel. Screen displaying code with a prominent alert symbol and the words 'VIRUS DETECTED' highlighted in red.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/05_Malware_Category_1920x900-1-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) October 6, 2026 [#### Blinder Tunnel Campaign Targets Iraqi Infrastructure](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/blinder-tunnel-targets-critical-infrastructure/) * [Advanced Persistent Threat](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/advanced-persistent-threat/ "Advanced Persistent Threat") * [Agent Serpens](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/agent-serpens/ "Agent Serpens") * [AppDomainManager](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/appdomainmanager/ "AppDomainManager") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/blinder-tunnel-targets-critical-infrastructure/ "Blinder Tunnel Campaign Targets Iraqi Infrastructure") ![Pictorial representation of how K8 operators betray your security posture. A close-up of a futuristic microchip with glowing circuits in vibrant colors, including blue, purple, and orange, reflecting light.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/AdobeStock_652069707-1-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) September 29, 2026 [#### OperTraitors: How Kubernetes Operators Betray Your Security Posture](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/agentic-ai-kubernetes-operator-risks/) * [AI](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/ai/ "AI") * [AI agents](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/ai-agents/ "AI agents") * [API](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/api/ "API") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/agentic-ai-kubernetes-operator-risks/ "OperTraitors: How Kubernetes Operators Betray Your Security Posture") ![Pictorial representation of a magnifying glass illuminating a glowing orange circular digital circuit interface on a dark, high-tech background.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/04_Myth-Busting_Overview_1920x900-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Insights-icon-white.svg)Insights](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/insights/) September 16, 2026 [#### Atomic macOS (AMOS) Stealer Activity](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/atomic-macos-amos-stealer-activity/) * [MacOS](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/macos/ "macOS") * [Threat intelligence](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/threat-intelligence/ "threat intelligence") * [Unit 42](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/unit-42/ "Unit 42") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/atomic-macos-amos-stealer-activity/ "Atomic macOS (AMOS) Stealer Activity") ![Pictorial representation of post-exploitation identity misuse in SPIFFE/SPIRE. Close-up of a person wearing glasses, with computer code reflected in the lenses.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/12_Security-Technology_Category_1920x900-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) September 10, 2026 [#### The Machine With Many Faces: Post-Exploitation Identity Misuse in SPIFFE/SPIRE](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/kubernetes-spiffe-spire-identity-spoofing/) * [API](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/api/ "API") * [Cryptographic](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cryptographic/ "cryptographic") * [JSON](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/json/ "JSON") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/kubernetes-spiffe-spire-identity-spoofing/ "The Machine With Many Faces: Post-Exploitation Identity Misuse in SPIFFE/SPIRE") ![Pictorial representation of a pay-per-install threat group campaign prodiving infection service for spreading malware. A close-up of a computer circuit board with a central microchip is depicted. Red digital data streams in the form of glowing binary numbers and arrows appear to flow in and out of the chip, symbolizing data processing and transfer. The scene is illuminated with a futuristic blue and red glow.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/04_Malware_Category_1920x900-6-786x368.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) September 9, 2026 [#### Untracked Nightmares: The Threats Hiding Behind Commodity Infrastructure](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ppi-network-malware-campaign-analysis/) * [ARKTunnel](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/arktunnel/ "ARKTunnel") * [C2](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/c2/ "C2") * [CL-CRI-1171](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cl-cri-1171/ "CL-CRI-1171") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ppi-network-malware-campaign-analysis/ "Untracked Nightmares: The Threats Hiding Behind Commodity Infrastructure") ![Pictorial representation of attackers using AI tools to target Latin American organizations. A vibrant cityscape with silhouettes of numerous people walking along a bustling street. The scene is illuminated by bright urban lights and digital-like particles, creating a dynamic and futuristic atmosphere.](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/AdobeStock_768915868-2-1-786x373.jpg) [![category icon](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/icon-threat-research.svg)Threat Research](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/category/threat-research/) September 3, 2026 [#### Attackers Expose Ongoing AI Tool Use Targeting Organizations in Latin America](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-tool-use-targeting-latam-orgs/) * [Agentic AI](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/agentic-ai/ "Agentic AI") * [ChatGPT](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/chatgpt/ "ChatGPT") * [CL-CRI-1131](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/tag/cl-cri-1131/ "CL-CRI-1131") [Read now ![Right arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-right-arrow-withtail.svg)](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-tool-use-targeting-latam-orgs/ "Attackers Expose Ongoing AI Tool Use Targeting Organizations in Latin America") * ![Slider arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/slider-arrow-left.svg) * ![Slider arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/slider-arrow-left.svg) ![Close button](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/close-modal.svg) ![Enlarged Image]() ![Newsletter](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/unit42-footer-subscribe-desktop.png) ![UNIT 42 Small Logo](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/palo-alto-logo-small.svg) Get updates from Unit 42 ## Peace of mind comes from staying ahead of threats. Subscribe today. Your Email Subscribe for email updates to all Unit 42 threat research. By submitting this form, you agree to our [Terms of Use](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/terms-of-use "Terms of Use") and acknowledge our [Privacy Statement.](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/privacy "Privacy Statement") This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google [Privacy Policy](https://policies.google.com/privacy) and [Terms of Service](https://policies.google.com/terms) apply. Invalid captcha! Subscribe ![Right Arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/right-arrow.svg) ![loader](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-loader.svg) {#footer} Products and Services * [AI-Powered Network Security Platform](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security) * [Secure AI by Design](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-security) * [Prisma AIRS](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/ai-security/prisma-airs) * [AI Access Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/ai-access-security) * [Cloud Delivered Security Services](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/security-subscriptions) * [Advanced Threat Prevention](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-threat-prevention) * [Advanced URL Filtering](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-url-filtering) * [Advanced WildFire](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-wildfire) * [Advanced DNS Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/advanced-dns-security) * [Enterprise Data Loss Prevention](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/enterprise-data-loss-prevention) * [Enterprise IoT Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/enterprise-device-security) * [Medical IoT Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/medical-device-security) * [Industrial OT Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/ot-security-solution) * [SaaS Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/saas-security) * [Next-Generation Firewalls](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/next-generation-firewall) * [Hardware Firewalls](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/hardware-firewall-innovations) * [Software Firewalls](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/software-firewalls) * [Strata Cloud Manager](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/strata-cloud-manager) * [SD-WAN for NGFW](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/sd-wan-subscription) * [PAN-OS](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/pan-os) * [Panorama](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/network-security/panorama) * [Secure Access Service Edge](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase) * [Prisma SASE](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase) * [Application Acceleration](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/app-acceleration) * [Autonomous Digital Experience Management](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/adem) * [Enterprise DLP](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/enterprise-data-loss-prevention) * [Prisma Access](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/access) * [Prisma Browser](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/prisma-browser) * [Prisma SD-WAN](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/sd-wan) * [Remote Browser Isolation](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/remote-browser-isolation) * [SaaS Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sase/saas-security) * [AI-Driven Security Operations Platform](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex) * [Cloud Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud) * [Cortex Cloud](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud) * [Application Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud/application-security) * [Cloud Posture Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud/cloud-posture-security) * [Cloud Runtime Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cloud/runtime-security) * [Prisma Cloud](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/prisma/cloud) * [AI-Driven SOC](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex) * [Cortex XSIAM](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xsiam) * [Cortex XDR](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xdr) * [Cortex XSOAR](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xsoar) * [Cortex Xpanse](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/cortex-xpanse) * [Unit 42 Managed Detection \& Response](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/respond/managed-detection-response) * [Managed XSIAM](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/managed-xsiam) * Observability * [Cortex XCOR](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/xcor) * [Next-Generation Identity Security](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira) * [Privileged Access Management](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/privileged-access-management) * [Identity and Access Management](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/identity-and-access-management) * [Endpoint Privilege Manager](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/endpoint-privilege-manager) * [Identity Governance](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/identity-governance) * [Workforce Password Management](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/workforce-password-management) * [Agentic Identities](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/agentic) * [Secrets Management](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/machine/secrets-management) * [Unified Secrets Governance](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/machine/unified-secrets-governance) * [Application Credentials Delivery](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/machine/application-credentials-delivery) * [Vendor Privileged Access](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/idira/human/vendor-privileged-access) * [Threat Intel and Incident Response Services](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42) * [Prepare for Emerging Risks](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/prepare-for-emerging-risks/continuous-frontier-ai-defense) * [Strengthen Your Defenses](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/strengthen-your-defenses) * [Build Your Security Strategy](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/build-your-security-strategy) * [Understand the Adversary](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/threat-intelligence) * [Respond to a Cyber Attack](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/unit42/respond) Company * [About Us](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/about-us) * [Careers](https://jobs.paloaltonetworks.com/en/) * [Contact Us](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/company/contact-sales) * [Corporate Responsibility](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/about-us/corporate-responsibility) * [Customers](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/customers) * [Investor Relations](https://investors.paloaltonetworks.com/) * [Location](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/about-us/locations) * [Newsroom](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/company/newsroom) Popular Links * [Blog](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/blog/) * [Communities](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/communities) * [Content Library](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/resources) * [Cyberpedia](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cyberpedia) * [Event Center](https://events.paloaltonetworks.com/) * [Manage Email Preferences](https://start.paloaltonetworks.com/preference-center-subscribe.html) * [Products A-Z](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/products/products-a-z) * [Product Certifications](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/trust-center/certifications) * [Report a Vulnerability](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/security-disclosure) * [Sitemap](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/sitemap) * [Tech Docs](https://docs.paloaltonetworks.com/) * [Unit 42](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/) * [Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information](https://panwedd.exterro.net/portal/dsar.htm?target=panwedd) ![Palo Alto Networks Logo](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/etc/clientlibs/clean/imgs/pan-logo-dark.svg) * [Privacy](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/privacy) * [Trust Center](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/trust-center) * [Terms of Use](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal-notices/terms-of-use) * [Documents](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/legal) Copyright © 2026 Palo Alto Networks. All Rights Reserved * [![Youtube](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/etc/clientlibs/clean/imgs/social/youtube-black.svg)](https://www.youtube.com/user/paloaltonetworks) * [![Podcast](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/content/dam/pan/en_US/images/icons/podcast.svg)](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/podcasts/threat-vector) * [![Facebook](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/etc/clientlibs/clean/imgs/social/facebook-black.svg)](https://www.facebook.com/PaloAltoNetworks/) * [![LinkedIn](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/etc/clientlibs/clean/imgs/social/linkedin-black.svg)](https://www.linkedin.com/company/palo-alto-networks) * [![Twitter](https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/etc/clientlibs/clean/imgs/social/twitter-x-black.svg)](https://twitter.com/PaloAltoNtwks) * EN Select your language ![Play](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/player-play-icon.svg) ![Pause](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/player-pause-icon1.svg) ![Minimize](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-minimize.svg) ![Close button](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/close-modal.svg) ### Default Heading Read the article ![Right Arrow](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/right-arrow.svg) Seekbar ![Play](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/player-play-icon.svg) ![Pause](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/player-pause-icon1.svg) ![Volume](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-volume.svg) Volume ![Minimize](https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/themes/unit42-v6/dist/images/icons/icon-minimize.svg)